American art underwent a profound transformation after World War II, shifting away from the dominant individualism of Abstract Expressionism towards new, often challenging, forms of expression. At the heart of this pivotal era were two influential artists: Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns. Their groundbreaking works anticipated the Pop art movement, blurred the lines between painting and sculpture, and redefined the role of everyday objects in art. This article explores their contributions to Rauschenberg, Johns, and Postwar American Art, providing a comprehensive overview for students.
Robert Rauschenberg: Innovator of the “Combines” and Postwar Art
Robert Rauschenberg (1925–2008) was an American painter and graphic artist widely credited with enabling the transition from Abstract Expressionism to Pop art. Born as Robert Milton Ernest Rauschenberg in Port Arthur, Texas, he studied at the Kansas City Art Institute, Paris's Académie Julian, and most notably, Black Mountain College in 1948. At Black Mountain, under the strict discipline of Josef Albers, Rauschenberg found inspiration to do “the exact opposite” of what he was taught.
His early artistic journey was shaped by significant collaborations and friendships, including with composer John Cage and later, Jasper Johns. These relationships were crucial to his exploration of new artistic territories. Rauschenberg's work often reflected Cage's ideas of chance and found sounds in music.
Key aspects of Rauschenberg's early career include:
- White Paintings (1951): These works were starkly blank, designed to react to and change with their surrounding environment, famously influencing John Cage's silent composition 4'33".
- Black Paintings and Red Paintings (1952): These series combined large painted areas with collage techniques, incorporating various objects attached to the canvas.
The Revolutionary “Combines” (1954–1964)
Rauschenberg is most renowned for his Combines, a series of artworks that radically integrated everyday objects into paintings, blurring the traditional distinctions between painting and sculpture. These works challenged the art world by using “unartistic” items such as a stuffed goat or his own bedspread. One Abstract Expressionist painter reportedly remarked, “If this is modern art, I quit!” The Combines profoundly inspired a generation of artists seeking alternatives to traditional artistic media.
His approach, often termed Neo-Dadaist, resonated with Marcel Duchamp's questioning of artistic objects versus everyday life, a discourse Rauschenberg articulated by stating he wanted to work “in the free space between art and life.”
Embracing Technology and Printmaking
In the early 1960s, Rauschenberg shifted his focus, incorporating not just found objects but also images into his art, particularly through silkscreen printing. This technique, previously limited to advertising, allowed for multiple reproductions of images, flattening experience. This aspect of his work is often compared to Andy Warhol, solidifying Rauschenberg's role as a vital precursor to American Pop Art.
In 1967, Rauschenberg co-founded Experiments in Art and Technology (E.A.T.) with Billy Klüver, a non-profit organization dedicated to fostering collaborations between artists and engineers. His broad career also included significant contributions to printmaking and performance art. He even won a Grammy in 1984 for the album cover design of the Talking Heads' Speaking in Tongues. Rauschenberg lived and worked in New York City and on Captiva Island, Florida, until his death in 2008.
Jasper Johns: Iconography and Challenging Perception in Postwar Art
Jasper Johns (born May 15, 1930) is an American painter, sculptor, draftsman, and printmaker, considered a central figure in American postwar art. He moved to New York City in the early 1950s after briefly studying at the University of South Carolina and Parsons School of Design. His education was interrupted by military service during the Korean War.
Upon his return to New York in 1953, Johns worked at Marboro Books and became associated with key art world figures. He had a romantic and artistic relationship with Robert Rauschenberg until 1961, and Rauschenberg became a profound artistic influence. Johns was also strongly influenced by choreographer Merce Cunningham and composer John Cage, with whom he shared ideas and explored the contemporary art scene.
The Genesis of Iconic Imagery: Flags, Targets, and Numbers
Johns's art career took a decisive turn in 1954 when he destroyed his existing artwork and began creating the paintings for which he is most recognized: depictions of flags, maps, targets, letters, and numbers. These works marked a clear departure from the Abstract Expressionist style, which emphasized the artist's individual personality. By using familiar symbols, Johns posed fundamental questions about the nature of representation and how we perceive art.
His iconic Flag (1954–55), painted after a dream, exemplifies this new direction. This encaustic painting depicts a national symbol yet draws attention to the design itself, maintaining a handmade quality through Johns's wax brushstrokes. It is neither a literal flag nor purely abstract, offering complex ambiguities. These early works received both praise and ridicule but quickly captivated the art world. In 1958, art dealer Leo Castelli discovered Johns's work in Rauschenberg's studio and immediately offered him a solo exhibition. The Museum of Modern Art purchased three pieces from this first show, solidifying Johns's place in art history.
Experimentation Across Mediums: Sculpture and Printmaking
Johns often included three-dimensional objects in his paintings, such as rulers or plaster reliefs, challenging the notion of painting as a two-dimensional realm. His consistent use of encaustic, an ancient technique involving melted wax and pigment, allowed him to experiment with texture, preserving individual brushstrokes even when layered.
Beyond painting, Johns made significant contributions to sculpture and printmaking. His early sculptures often incorporated everyday items like beer cans, light bulbs, and paintbrushes. He began experimenting with printmaking in 1960 at Universal Limited Art Editions (ULAE), producing over 180 editions. Working with various printmakers, he innovated screen printing, lithography, and etching, creating a substantial body of work that revolutionized the field. Notable print collaborations include Foirades/Fizzles (1976) with author Samuel Beckett.
Evolution of Style and Lasting Impact
Throughout his career, Johns continued to evolve. In the 1970s, his work transitioned to a more monotone and simple art form, as seen in his collaboration with Samuel Beckett on Fizzles. Later, he ventured into autobiographical paintings, a shift that surprised followers given his earlier statement about not painting with emotion. Despite this, Johns consistently challenged artistic conventions and perceptions.
Johns has received numerous accolades, including the Golden Lion at the Venice Biennale (1988), the National Medal of Arts (1990), and the Presidential Medal of Freedom (2011). His works consistently fetch record-breaking prices; in 2010, his 1958 painting Flag reportedly sold for $110 million. Today, Johns lives and works in Connecticut, with plans to transform his estate into an artists' residency after his death. Together with Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein, Jasper Johns is recognized as one of the most significant American Pop Artists of the twentieth century, and his printmaking rivals that of masters like Dürer and Picasso.
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The Intertwined Legacies of Rauschenberg and Johns
The shared influence and personal relationship between Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns were crucial in shaping postwar American art. They were both pivotal figures in Neo-Dada and vital predecessors to Pop Art, moving art away from Abstract Expressionism’s intense emotionality toward a more conceptual, object-oriented, and often ironic engagement with the world. Their questioning of what constitutes art, their use of everyday objects and symbols, and their innovative approaches to materials and techniques created a fertile ground for the artistic movements that followed. Their legacies continue to inspire and provoke, demonstrating the enduring power of art to reflect and reshape culture.
Frequently Asked Questions About Rauschenberg, Johns, and Postwar American Art
What distinguished Rauschenberg and Johns from Abstract Expressionists?
Both Rauschenberg and Johns moved away from the highly personal, gestural abstraction of Abstract Expressionism. Instead, they incorporated familiar, often mass-produced, objects and symbols into their work, questioning individualism and introducing a more objective, conceptual approach to art.
What are Robert Rauschenberg's “Combines”?
Rauschenberg's “Combines” are artworks created between 1954 and 1964 that blend painting and sculpture by incorporating everyday objects (e.g., tires, stuffed animals, bedsheets) directly onto the canvas, challenging traditional artistic categories.
What is Jasper Johns best known for in his paintings?
Jasper Johns is most famous for his paintings of familiar symbols such as flags, targets, numbers, and maps. These works are characterized by their iconic imagery and his innovative use of encaustic, which creates textured surfaces and challenges notions of representation and abstraction.
How did Rauschenberg and Johns influence Pop Art?
Rauschenberg and Johns are considered crucial predecessors to Pop Art. They paved the way by incorporating popular culture and everyday objects into their work, using reproducible imagery (especially Rauschenberg with silkscreen), and questioning the distinction between high and low art, concepts later central to Pop Art.
What was the significance of the relationship between Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns?
Their romantic and artistic relationship (1954-1961) fostered a period of intense collaboration and mutual influence. They shared ideas, explored the contemporary art scene, and together laid much of the groundwork for Neo-Dada and Pop Art, challenging established artistic norms and broadening the definition of art.