Summary of Psychology of Gender and Sexuality

## Introduction Gender shapes how people think about themselves and others, how societies allocate roles, and how individuals behave in daily life. This study material summarizes the psychological, biological, environmental, and cultural influences on gender identity, gender typing, gender roles, and common cognitive, social and personality differences associated with gender. It breaks complex ideas into manageable parts and gives real-world examples to aid understanding. ## Key concepts and definitions > **Gender:** the psychological aspects of being masculine or feminine, including roles, behaviours, and identity. > **Gender identity:** the individual’s sense of being masculine or feminine. > **Gender typing:** the process of acquiring gender-role characteristics. > **Gender roles:** the culture’s expectations for male or female behaviour, including attitudes, actions, and personality traits associated with being male or female in that culture. > **Transgender:** a person whose sense of gender identity does not match their physical sex characteristics or the gender roles associated with their physical sex. > **Gender dysphoria:** significant distress experienced because of incongruence between one’s experienced gender and assigned physical sex; not all transgender people experience dysphoria. ## How gender traits develop — major influences Breakdown of influences: ### Biological influences - Prenatal hormones can influence later behaviour patterns (e.g., exposure to androgens correlates with more traditionally masculine play in childhood). - Brain structures and activity sometimes show sex-linked patterns (e.g., amygdala and hypothalamus responses to sexual stimuli differ on average between men and women). - Caution: biological differences rarely determine fixed outcomes; they interact with environment and culture. Practical example: Studies of girls exposed to higher prenatal androgens sometimes show tomboyish play in early childhood yet develop more typical feminine interests later, suggesting multiple interacting causes. ### Psychological influences - Early identity formation, reactions to caregiver behaviour, and cognitive development shape gender identity. - Transgender identities and gender dysphoria can emerge from a mix of prenatal, developmental and psychosocial factors; treatments include social support, hormone therapy, and surgery when desired by the person. Practical application: Clinicians assess each person’s history and distress level before recommending interventions; peer and family support improves outcomes. ### Environmental influences (social learning) - Children learn gendered behaviour by observing and imitating same-sex models (parents, siblings, teachers, media). - Reinforcement: behaviours that match cultural expectations are rewarded; nonconforming behaviours may be ignored or discouraged. Real-world example: A boy who sees his father fixing cars and receiving praise for independence is likely to internalize those behaviours as masculine. ### Cognitive-developmental influences - Children build gender schemas—mental categories for what it means to be a boy or girl. - Once schema is formed, children categorize people and actions and selectively attend to schema-consistent information (gender appearance rigidity in preschoolers is an example). Practical implication: Educational interventions that present diverse role models and challenge rigid schemas can reduce early stereotyping. ### Cultural influences - Individualistic, wealthier societies tend toward less traditional gender roles; collectivist or less wealthy societies often maintain more traditional expectations. - Parental concern often differs by gender; fathers typically show stronger pressure for sons to be masculine than for daughters to be feminine. Did you know that countries like the Netherlands and Germany tend to hold more nontraditional gender-role attitudes while some African and Asian countries hold more