Summary of International Relations as Science

## Introduction Positivism is a philosophical approach to science that emphasizes empirical knowledge acquired through observation and experiment. In this material, we will focus on the epistemological foundations of positivism, its ontological implications (phenomenalism), and the concept of objective knowledge. The aim is to explain the concepts clearly and illustratively, and to provide examples and applications. ## 1. Epistemological Priority in Positivism Positivism prioritizes the question “what we can know” (epistemology) over the question “what exists” (ontology). This means that an ontological claim about the existence of something is derived from what can be empirically observed. > Definition: Epistemology is a philosophical discipline investigating the nature, scope, and sources of knowledge. ### Key Ideas - Observation and empirical experience are the foundation of knowledge. - According to positivism, what cannot be observed is not a subject of scientific inquiry. - Theories must be supported by inductive evidence based on experience. Practical Example: If I claim that a certain enzyme exists, a positivist would demand its observation through experiment, spectrometry, or microscopy to provide scientific backing. ## 2. Empiricism vs. Rationalism A comparison of fundamental epistemological approaches: | Approach | Emphasis | Source of knowledge | |---|---:|---| | Empiricism | Sensory experience | Observation, experiment | | Rationalism | Reason and deduction | Logic, intellect | > Definition: Empiricism is the view that all knowledge is based on empirical experience. Did you know that empiricism as a systematic philosophical position originated in the British context, and its key figures include Francis Bacon, John Locke, and David Hume? ## 3. Phenomenalism (Ontology in Positivism) Since knowledge is considered dependent on sensory perception, positivism adopts an ontology that asserts objects manifest only as appearances (phenomena). Consequently, there is no access to the "thing-in-itself" unmediated by the senses. > Definition: Phenomenalism is the view that physical objects exist only as sensually accessible phenomena or representations, not as "things-in-themselves." Practical example: When we measure air temperature, we record the phenomenon of temperature via a thermometer; according to phenomenalism, we can only speak about "temperature as a thing-in-itself" within the framework of these measurable phenomena. ## 4. Objectivity and the Fact/Value Distinction Positivism asserts that there is a clear distinction between facts and values: facts are observable and independent of value judgments; values belong to the realm of ideas and are not subjects of scientific inquiry. ### Requirements for “Objective” Scientific Knowledge - Verification: empirical observation must be confirmed by repeated experiments. - Intersubjectivity: results must be reproducible by different researchers. - Logical and experimental support for theories. Practical example: Clinical drug trials must be reproducible across different laboratories for the results to be considered objective. ## 5. Implications for Scientific Practice - Focus on measurable variables (operationalization). - Preference for quantitative methods that enable comparability and reproducibility. - Rejection of (or skepticism towards) metaphysical claims that are not empirically verifiable. > Definition: Operationalization is the process of transforming abstract concepts into measurable variables. Fun fact: Positivism significantly influenced the emergence of modern empirical sociology and the methodology of social research, with an emphasis on quantitative data collection and statistical analysis. ## 6. Limitations and Critical Questions - Phenomenalism raises the question of how we can talk about a 'hidden' reality (theories, causal mechanisms) that is not directly observable. - The separation of facts and values is often criticized: some choices in