Summary of 19th Century European History: Ideologies and Unification

## Introduction The Unification of Italy (Risorgimento) was the process through which several independent states and foreign-ruled territories on the Italian peninsula joined to form the Kingdom of Italy in the 19th century. This material breaks the events and key actors into clear steps, explains methods used (diplomacy, war, popular uprisings), and highlights the immediate political and social consequences. > Definition: The Risorgimento (Resurgence) refers to the political and military processes that combined to create a single Italian state in the 19th century. ## Key phases and events ### 1. Piedmont-Sardinia as the leading state - Piedmont-Sardinia (also called the Kingdom of Sardinia) provided political leadership, resources, and an Italian ruling dynasty that most other states lacked. - Its prime minister, Camillo di Cavour, used diplomacy, economic modernization, and selective military action to advance unification. > Definition: Realpolitik — practical politics focused on power and national interest rather than ideology; Cavour used a form of this in diplomacy and alliances. ### 2. 1858–1859: Alliance with France and war with Austria - Cavour negotiated with Emperor Napoleon III of France to provoke a war with Austria, the major obstacle to unification in northern Italy. - Franco-Piedmontese forces defeated Austria and Lombardy passed from Austrian control to Piedmont-Sardinia. Practical example: Securing a powerful ally (France) helped a regional state (Piedmont-Sardinia) overcome a larger empire (Austria) and gain territory. ### 3. 1860: Garibaldi and the southern campaign - Giuseppe Garibaldi led the Red Shirts, a volunteer force of nationalists, which landed in Sicily and defeated the Bourbon rulers of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. - Garibaldi’s campaign liberated Sicily and Naples and ultimately handed control to the King of Piedmont-Sardinia, supporting unification under a monarchy. > Definition: Expedition of the Thousand — Garibaldi’s 1860 volunteer invasion that brought the south into the unification process. ### 4. Plebiscites and annexations (1860) - In the autumn of 1860, plebiscites (popular votes) were held in southern provinces (Sicily, Naples) and central duchies (Modena, Tuscany). Voters approved joining Piedmont-Sardinia. ### 5. Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy (1861) - The National Assembly proclaimed Victor Emmanuel II (note: source text had III but historical king is Victor Emmanuel II) as King of Italy in 1861. - Italy became a constitutional monarchy with its first capital in Turin (Torino); the capital was later moved to Florence and then Rome. ### 6. 1866: Venetia and the Seven Weeks’ War - Italy allied with Prussia against Austria in the 1866 conflict (the Seven Weeks’ War). - After Austria’s defeat, Italy gained Venetia. ### 7. 1870–1871: Rome and the final step - In 1870, Italian forces entered the remaining Papal territories after French troops withdrew during the Franco-Prussian War; Rome became part of Italy, except for the area that remained as Vatican City under papal authority. - In 1871, Rome was declared the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. Fun fact: Garibaldi’s Red Shirts got their name because many volunteers wore red garments originally supplied for South American campaigns. ## People and roles | Person | Role | Method used | | --- | ---: | --- | | Camillo di Cavour | Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia | Diplomacy, alliances, military actions | | Giuseppe Garibaldi | Revolutionary leader | Volunteer army, popular insurrections | | Victor Emmanuel II | King of Piedmont-Sardinia → King of Italy | Monarchical legitimacy, annexation acceptance | ## Methods and processes - Diplomacy: treaties and alliances (example: Piedmont-Sardinia with France) - Military action: wars against Austria and the Bourbon Kingdom - Popular mobilization: volunteer forces and plebiscites in annexed regions - Annexation: formal incorporation of territories into the new kingdom > Defin