The topic of local policing and public order is increasingly central to security discussions. This complex area involves understanding how various police units, especially municipal forces, fit into a state's overall security system. Key concepts like pluralistic policing, the extended police family, and multi-level policing at the local level highlight the diverse ways communities ensure safety and maintain order. This article provides a comprehensive overview, drawing on extensive research to clarify these roles and challenges for students of public safety and criminal justice.
Understanding Local Policing and Public Order: A Historical Perspective
Local policing in the United States has historically been characterized by its local nature, with municipalities bearing most of the burden of law enforcement despite federal and state agencies (Smith, 1929). The role of police in modern society has become increasingly complicated, moving beyond simply confronting perpetrators to a wide range of administrative and social tasks.
Evolution of Police Duties and Organizational Structures
Municipal police forces often handle a variety of responsibilities that can divert attention from core policing missions like crime prevention and property protection. These tasks can include:1. Official Agenda: Licensing private detectives, pawnshops, street sales, dance halls, and even film censorship.2. Traffic Regulation: Managing road transport and parking, which can be unpopular with the public.3. Probation Services: Supervising released convicts.4. Social Assistance: Providing aid to the poor or homeless.5. Inspections: Checking requirements for hazardous substance storage, including filling stations.6. Civic Registration: Conducting censuses, voter registration, and verification of voter lists.7. Public Health: Control of venereal disease examinations for prostitutes.8. Animal Control: Managing dog agendas, including dog tag issuance.
The freedom municipalities have in managing their police forces leads to diverse organizational models, with structures varying greatly from smaller towns to larger cities. Reorganizations are often motivated by efforts to control police better and prevent corruption, contrasting with England's more stable police organization since its modern forces were created.
The activities of a police organization are divided into primary functions, such as crime suppression, detection, and traffic regulation, and ancillary but necessary tasks like licensing or public ambulance services. The growing interest in crime prevention is now accepted as a proper duty of the police. From the formation of New Scotland Yard to the advent of radio communications and motorized patrols, police work has become significantly more complicated and scientific, requiring specialized personnel.
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Community Policing: Bridging the Gap Between Police and PublicCommunity policing, or community-oriented police service (COPS), represents a significant reform package that has reshaped police forces since the 1990s. It emphasizes building strong relationships and partnerships between the police and the communities they serve.
Key Practices and Core Elements
Research has identified twelve typical community policing practices (Zhao et al., 1999):1. Strong, fixed connection of officers to specific locations (e.g., “know your police officer”).2. Denser networks of frontline police stations.3. Specialization of officers for specific tasks in target locations.4. Emphasis on foot, cycling, or horseback patrols.5. Use of unpaid civilian volunteers.6. Neighborhood watch programs.7. Patrol programs in business districts.8. Contact programs for crime victims.9. Work with community correspondents to build communication channels.10. Meetings between officers and the public within the community.11. Educational programs for the public focused on crime prevention.12. Opinion polls to gather information on local priorities.
At its core, community policing encompasses problem solving, public involvement, and decentralization (Skogan, 2006). Problem-solving focuses on proactive crime prevention and addressing issues like neglected properties or graffiti, rather than just reactive responses. Public involvement encourages citizens to be the “eyes and ears” of the police, fostering social capital (Scott, J. D., 2002). Decentralization supports these elements by empowering officers with incentives, training, and flexibility to engage in community-based activities, such as foot patrols, which have become an iconic example of the concept.
Soft Policing vs. Hard Policing
A key idea in community policing is to reduce traditional, reactive methods (hard policing) and strengthen proactive, communication-based approaches (soft policing). However, this shift faces resistance from traditionalists who prioritize crime fighting and aggressive tactics, often viewing soft approaches as not “real police work.”The broken windows theory (Wilson and Kelling, 1982) suggests that visible signs of disorder, like vandalism, signal a breakdown of social control, encouraging more serious crime. From this perspective, “proactivity” can be interpreted as an aggressive approach to enforce public order, even against behaviors that are not illegal but violate neighborhood norms (Terrill and Mastrofski, 2001).However, critics argue that aggressive measures may disproportionately target ethnic minorities and socially disadvantaged groups, leading to a loss of public trust. While the benefits of community policing are considerable, they are often difficult to measure, and their impact on crime rates can be unclear. Nevertheless, foot patrols, despite limited impact on detected crime, can significantly reduce public fear of crime, improve police perception, and increase citizen willingness to engage in local security initiatives.
Socially Disadvantaged Groups and Police Trust
The Kerner Report from 1968 highlighted deep animosity between police and ghetto residents, foreshadowing modern concerns about police-minority relations. It revealed that many African Americans perceived police as lacking respect, using offensive language, and employing unnecessary force. This sentiment led to a perception of police as an