Summary of Comprehensive English Language Practice
Comprehensive English Language Practice: Ultimate Guide
Introduction
This guide explains two essential grammar areas for advanced English learners: prepositions (spatial, temporal, and structure) and relative clauses (defining and non-defining). You will get clear rules, examples, comparisons, and practice strategies suitable for university-level use.
Definition: A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other words in a sentence, often indicating time, place or direction.
Definition: A relative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun. A defining relative clause identifies which person or thing we mean; a non-defining relative clause adds extra information about a noun already identified.
Overview and why it matters
- Correct preposition use prevents meaning confusion (e.g. depend on vs depend of).
- Relative clauses let you combine sentences and add precision or extra detail without repetition.
Part A — Relative Clauses
1. Two types: defining (restrictive) vs non-defining (non-restrictive)
- Defining relative clauses (D): give essential information to identify the noun. No commas. Example: The student who submitted the essay early got feedback first.
- Non-defining relative clauses (ND): add extra information about a noun already identified. Use commas. Example: Dr. Lee, who won the award last year, will give the keynote.
Definition: The relative pronouns commonly used are who (people), which (things), that (people or things, mainly in defining clauses). The relative pronoun can sometimes be omitted when it functions as the object of the clause.
2. Relative pronouns: quick table
| Purpose | Pronoun | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| People (subject/object) | who / whom | whom for formal object position; who often used in speech |
| Things (subject/object) | which | used in both defining and non-defining for things |
| People or things (defining) | that | not used in non-defining clauses; cannot be used with commas |
| Possessive forms | whose | use for possession with people or things |
3. Key rules and examples
- Use who for people: The researcher who discovered the effect published it. (D)
- Use which for things: The device which failed has been repaired. (D or ND depending on commas)
- Use that in defining clauses: Books that contain errors were recalled. (D)
- Omit the relative pronoun when it is the object: The paper (that) I read was excellent. (D)
- Commas separate non-defining clauses only: My colleague, who is an editor, advised me. (ND)
- Do not use commas for defining clauses: Students who miss tutorials must catch up. (D)
4. Combining sentences using relative clauses (how-to)
- Step 1: Identify the noun repeated in both sentences.
- Step 2: Decide whether the extra information is essential (defining) or additional (non-defining).
- Step 3: Choose the correct pronoun and punctuation. Example: Charles Dickens died in 1870. He wrote Great Expectations. Combine: Charles Dickens, who wrote Great Expectations, died in 1870. (ND because Dickens is already identified)
5. Structures with of which / of whom
- Use phrases like "all of which", "most of whom" in non-defining clauses: The team, most of whom were volunteers, completed the survey.
💡 Věděli jste?Fun fact: Non-defining relative clauses always require commas and cannot use "that" as the relative pronoun.
6. Practice tips (relative clauses)
- Identify whether the noun needs restriction. If yes, use a defining clause without commas.
- Replace clauses with short noun phrases to check necessity: If the sentence still uniquely identifies the noun, the clause is likely non-defining.
- When in doubt about commas, ask: "Can I remove this clause without changing which person/thing I mean?" If yes, use commas (ND).
Part B — Prepositions
1. Categories and common confusions
- Spatial: in, on, at, across, through
- Direction/movement: to, into, onto, from, across
- Temporal: at (times), on (days), in (mont
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Prepositions & Relative Clauses
Klíčové pojmy: Defining clauses identify nouns and use no commas, Non-defining clauses add extra information and use commas, Use who for people, which for things, that for defining clauses, Omit the relative pronoun when it is the object of the clause, Use whose for possession in relative clauses, Common verb+preposition pairs must be memorised (depend on, approve of), Choose prepositions by function: movement vs position, time vs place, Place prepositions before relative pronouns in formal style or at the end in informal style, When in doubt remove the clause — if meaning unchanged it's non-defining, Position prepositional phrases next to the word they modify
## Introduction
This guide explains two essential grammar areas for advanced English learners: **prepositions** (spatial, temporal, and structure) and **relative clauses** (defining and non-defining). You will get clear rules, examples, comparisons, and practice strategies suitable for university-level use.
> Definition: A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other words in a sentence, often indicating time, place or direction.
> Definition: A relative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun. A defining relative clause identifies which person or thing we mean; a non-defining relative clause adds extra information about a noun already identified.
## Overview and why it matters
- Correct preposition use prevents meaning confusion (e.g. depend on vs depend of).
- Relative clauses let you combine sentences and add precision or extra detail without repetition.
## Part A — Relative Clauses
### 1. Two types: defining (restrictive) vs non-defining (non-restrictive)
- Defining relative clauses (D): give essential information to identify the noun. No commas. Example: The student who submitted the essay early got feedback first.
- Non-defining relative clauses (ND): add extra information about a noun already identified. Use commas. Example: Dr. Lee, who won the award last year, will give the keynote.
> Definition: The relative pronouns commonly used are **who** (people), **which** (things), **that** (people or things, mainly in defining clauses). The relative pronoun can sometimes be omitted when it functions as the object of the clause.
### 2. Relative pronouns: quick table
| Purpose | Pronoun | Notes |
|---|---:|---|
| People (subject/object) | who / whom | whom for formal object position; who often used in speech |
| Things (subject/object) | which | used in both defining and non-defining for things |
| People or things (defining) | that | not used in non-defining clauses; cannot be used with commas |
| Possessive forms | whose | use for possession with people or things |
### 3. Key rules and examples
1. Use **who** for people: The researcher who discovered the effect published it. (D)
2. Use **which** for things: The device which failed has been repaired. (D or ND depending on commas)
3. Use **that** in defining clauses: Books that contain errors were recalled. (D)
4. Omit the relative pronoun when it is the object: The paper (that) I read was excellent. (D)
5. Commas separate non-defining clauses only: My colleague, who is an editor, advised me. (ND)
6. Do not use commas for defining clauses: Students who miss tutorials must catch up. (D)
### 4. Combining sentences using relative clauses (how-to)
- Step 1: Identify the noun repeated in both sentences.
- Step 2: Decide whether the extra information is essential (defining) or additional (non-defining).
- Step 3: Choose the correct pronoun and punctuation.
Example: Charles Dickens died in 1870. He wrote Great Expectations.
Combine: Charles Dickens, who wrote Great Expectations, died in 1870. (ND because Dickens is already identified)
### 5. Structures with of which / of whom
- Use phrases like "all of which", "most of whom" in non-defining clauses: The team, most of whom were volunteers, completed the survey.
Fun fact: Non-defining relative clauses always require commas and cannot use "that" as the relative pronoun.
### 6. Practice tips (relative clauses)
- Identify whether the noun needs restriction. If yes, use a defining clause without commas.
- Replace clauses with short noun phrases to check necessity: If the sentence still uniquely identifies the noun, the clause is likely non-defining.
- When in doubt about commas, ask: "Can I remove this clause without changing which person/thing I mean?" If yes, use commas (ND).
## Part B — Prepositions
### 1. Categories and common confusions
- Spatial: in, on, at, across, through
- Direction/movement: to, into, onto, from, across
- Temporal: at (times), on (days), in (mont