Critical thinking is an essential skill, and at its core lies the ability to understand arguments. This guide will help you dissect what an argument truly is, how to identify its key components, and differentiate it from other forms of communication. Mastering these concepts is crucial for evaluating information and constructing your own sound reasoning.
What is an Argument in Critical Thinking?
In critical thinking, an argument is defined as a group of statements where one or more statements (known as premises) are claimed to provide support for, or reasons to believe, another statement (the conclusion). It's a structured way of presenting a point of view with supporting evidence.
Arguments are fundamentally composed of these two parts: premises and a conclusion. The goal is for the premises to offer compelling reasons for accepting the conclusion.
Defining Key Terms: Statements, Premises, and Conclusions
To fully grasp arguments, we first need to clarify some basic terminology:
- Statement: A sentence that can be viewed as either true or false. For example, "Red is a colour" or "Canada is in South America" are statements, even if one is clearly false. "God does not exist" and "Abortion is morally wrong" are also statements, albeit controversial ones.
- Premises: These are the statements within an argument that set forth the reasons or evidence. They lay the groundwork for what the arguer wants you to believe.
- Conclusion: This is the statement in an argument that the evidence (premises) is claimed to support or imply. It's the main point the argument is trying to establish.
Consider this example:
- All film stars are celebrities.
- Majid Michel is a film star.
- Therefore, Majid Michel is a celebrity.
The first two statements are the premises, offering evidence, and they collectively support the third statement, which is the conclusion.
How to Identify Premises and Conclusions in Arguments
Identifying the different parts of an argument is a critical skill. Often, we are helped by indicator words, which are specific words or phrases that signal the presence of premises or conclusions.
Understanding Premise Indicators
Premise indicators are words that suggest the statements following or preceding them are premises, providing reasons or evidence.
Common premise indicators include:
- Since
- For
- Seeing that
- Inasmuch as
- Because
- Given that
- Considering that
- As
- In view of the fact that
- As indicated by
- Judging from
- On account of
- May be inferred from
- For the reason that
- Owing to
Example: "Expectant mothers should never use recreational drugs, since the use of these drugs can jeopardize the development of the fetus."
Here, "since" signals that "the use of these drugs can jeopardize the development of the fetus" is a premise supporting the conclusion that "expectant mothers should never use recreational drugs."
Recognizing Conclusion Indicators
Conclusion indicators are words that signal the statement following or preceding them is the conclusion, the main point being argued.
Common conclusion indicators include:
- Therefore
- Accordingly
- Entails that
- Wherefore
- We may conclude
- Hence
- Thus
- It must be that
- It follows that
- Consequently
- For this reason
- Implies that
- We may infer
- So
- As a result
Example: "Tortured prisoners will say anything just to relieve the pain. Consequently, torture is not a reliable method of interrogation."
"Consequently" clearly marks "torture is not a reliable method of interrogation" as the conclusion.
The Inferential Claim: Explicit vs. Implicit Reasoning
An inferential claim is simply the assertion that a passage expresses a specific kind of reasoning process—meaning something supports or implies something else, or something follows from something else. This claim is an objective feature, grounded in the language or structure of the argument, rather than the arguer's subjective intentions.
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Explicit Inferential Claim: This is present when premise or conclusion indicator words are used. For instance, in "Mad cow disease is spread by feeding parts of infected animals to cows, and this practice has yet to be completely eradicated. Thus, mad cow disease continues to pose a threat to people who eat beef," the word "thus" makes the inferential claim explicit.
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Implicit Inferential Claim: This exists when there's a clear inferential relationship between statements, but no indicator words are used. Example: "The genetic modification of food is risky business. Genetic engineering can introduce unintended changes into the DNA of the food-producing organism, and these changes can be toxic to the consumer." Here, the relationship implicitly claims that the last two statements provide evidence for the first, making it an argument.
What is Not an Argument? Differentiating Discourse Types
It's crucial to distinguish actual arguments from other forms of discourse that might seem similar but lack an inferential claim. The basic test is simple: a passage is an argument if it contains two or more statements, and one of those statements (the conclusion) is claimed to be supported by the others (the premises).
Here are five types of nonargumentative discourse often confused with arguments:
- Conditional Statements: An "if-then" statement (e.g., "If it rains, then the picnic will be canceled") is not an argument. There is no claim that any part of the statement follows from another part; it simply states a relationship. Other forms include "Should it rain, the picnic will be canceled" or "Peter will graduate, provided he passes Critical Thinking."
- Unsupported Assertions: These are statements about what a speaker or writer believes, without offering any reasons or evidence. For example, "I believe that it is not dying that people are afraid of. Something else, something more unsettling and more tragic than dying frightens us." This expresses a belief but provides no premises to support it.
- Reports: The primary purpose of a report is to convey information about a subject or event without making an inferential claim. For instance, a passage describing "sweeping changes occurred in demographics, economics, culture, and society during the last quarter of the 20th century" is simply informing the reader.
- Explanations: An explanation tries to show why something is the case, rather than proving that it is the case. While both arguments and explanations use premises to support a statement, an explanation assumes the truth of the statement it explains. For example, "The Titanic sank because it struck an iceberg" is an explanation (we already know the Titanic sank). In contrast, "Capital punishment should be abolished because innocent people may be mistakenly executed" is an argument (it aims to prove capital punishment should be abolished).
- Illustrations: Illustrations provide examples of a claim, rather than offering proof or support for the claim itself. For example, "Many wildflowers are edible. For example, daisies and day lilies are delicious in salads." The examples clarify the claim but don't serve as convincing evidence that all wildflowers are edible or that the initial claim needed proving.
Good Arguments vs. Bad Arguments in Critical Thinking
Once you can recognize an argument, the next step in critical thinking is to evaluate its quality. Arguments are broadly categorized into two groups:
- Good Arguments: These are arguments in which the premises truly do support the conclusion. The evidence provided logically leads to the conclusion.
- Bad Arguments: In these arguments, the premises, despite being presented, do not adequately support the conclusion. The conclusion does not follow logically from the reasons given.
Example of a Bad Argument:
- Some film stars are men.
- Jackie Appiah is a film star.
- Therefore, Jackie Appiah is a man.
Here, the first two statements (premises) do not sufficiently support the third (conclusion). While the premises might be true, they don't logically guarantee that Jackie Appiah, specifically, is a man.
Understanding this distinction is fundamental to developing strong critical thinking skills and navigating complex information effectively. By carefully analyzing the structure and inferential claims of any given text, you can become adept at identifying, evaluating, and constructing sound arguments.
FAQ: Common Questions on Understanding Arguments
What is the difference between a sentence, a statement, and an argument?
A sentence is a grammatical unit. A statement is a type of sentence that can be judged as true or false. An argument is a group of statements (premises) intended to provide support for another statement (the conclusion).
How do I distinguish an explanation from an argument?
An explanation tells why something is the case, assuming its truth. An argument attempts to prove that something is the case, aiming to convince you of its truth. Explanations focus on causes; arguments focus on justification.
Can a conditional statement be an argument?
No, a conditional statement (an "if-then" statement) is generally not an argument on its own. It states a relationship between two conditions but does not claim that either condition is true or that one statement provides support for another in the way an argument does. However, conditional statements can be part of a larger argument.
What are inferential claims and why are they important?
Inferential claims are assertions that a passage involves a reasoning process where something supports or implies something else. They are crucial because they signify the presence of an argument. Recognizing them helps you identify when a speaker or writer is attempting to justify a belief, rather than just stating facts or beliefs.