The Treaty of Versailles and Germany

The Treaty of Versailles, signed on June 28, 1919, officially ended World War I. However, for Germany, it marked the beginning of a decade of profound social, political, and economic turmoil. This comprehensive overview explores The Treaty of Versailles and Germany, detailing its terms, the immediate German reactions, and the lasting consequences that fueled resentment and extremism in the Weimar Republic.

Understanding The Treaty of Versailles and its Impact on Germany

The Treaty of Versailles was universally resented in Germany, with many Germans viewing its signing as a profound betrayal and humiliation. Right-wing groups even referred to the Weimar politicians who signed it as the 'November Criminals,' accusing them of stabbing Germany in the back. Historian Zara Steiner notes that hatred of the Versailles Treaty was almost the only issue all Germans agreed on during this period.

Key Terms of the Treaty of Versailles

The main terms of the Treaty can be divided into five critical areas:

• War Guilt (Article 231): Germany had to accept sole blame for starting the war. This 'war guilt' clause was particularly hated by Germans, who felt blame should be shared. They were also bitter about being expected to pay for all war damages despite their weakened economy.
• Reparations: Germany was mandated to pay reparations to the Allies for war damage. The exact figure, set in 1921, was an enormous £6,600 million (132 billion gold marks). This financial burden was a major blow to the German economy.
• Territorial Losses: Germany lost significant territory, impacting its pride and economy:
• 10% of its land in Europe.
• All its overseas colonies, which became mandates controlled by the League of Nations (effectively France and Britain).
• 12.5% of its population.
• 16% of its coalfields and almost half of its iron and steel industry, including important industrial areas like the Saar (coal to France for 15 years) and Upper Silesia.
• The Polish Corridor split East Prussia from the rest of Germany, causing population migration.
• Anschluss (union) with Austria was strictly forbidden.
• Military Restrictions: The Treaty severely restricted Germany's armed forces, a major concern especially for France:
• Army limited to 100,000 men.
• Conscription was banned; soldiers had to be volunteers.
• Germany was not allowed armoured vehicles, submarines, or aircraft.
• The navy could only have six battleships and 15,000 sailors.
• The Rhineland, the border area with France, became a demilitarised zone with no German troops allowed.
• These terms were seen as unfair, as Germany's army was a symbol of national pride, and no Allies were disarming similarly.
• League of Nations: Set up as an international 'police force,' Germany was not invited to join the League until it proved to be a peace-loving country. This exclusion further insulted Germans.

German Reactions and the Sense of Injustice

When the terms were announced on May 7, 1919, Germans were horrified. The new democratic government initially refused to sign, and the German navy sank its own ships in protest. Faced with the threat of renewed war, German leader Friedrich Ebert reluctantly agreed to accept the terms, signing on June 28, 1919.

Germans felt the Treaty was a 'Diktat,' a dictated peace, and that their treatment was inconsistent with Wilson's Fourteen Points. For example, while self-determination was granted to new nations, German-speaking peoples were placed under non-German rule in countries like Czechoslovakia. They were also angry about not being represented at the peace talks and being forced to accept a harsh treaty without input.

The Political Impact of the Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty became a focal point for political instability and violence in the Weimar Republic.

Early Challenges: Freikorps and the Kapp Putsch

Right-wing opponents of Ebert's government fiercely protested the Treaty. In 1920, ex-soldiers organized into paramilitary groups called Freikorps were ordered to disband as their existence violated the Treaty's military terms. This led to an uprising in March 1920, known as the Kapp Putsch, led by Wolfgang Kapp, aiming to overthrow Ebert and install a nationalist government. The Putsch was defeated by a general strike of Berlin workers, which paralyzed essential services. While it saved Ebert's government, it highlighted Germany's internal chaos and the deep-seated bitterness towards the Treaty.

Political Assassinations and Extremism

Political violence remained a constant threat. Numerous assassinations or attempts occurred. In the summer of 1922, Germany's foreign minister, Walther Rathenau, was murdered by extremists. This climate of resentment and instability provided fertile ground for radical figures.

Adolf Hitler and the Munich Putsch

In November 1923, Adolf Hitler led an attempted rebellion in Munich, known as the Munich Putsch. Although defeated, Hitler received a light sentence during his trial, revealing that many Germans shared his profound hatred of Versailles. Over the next decade, Hitler expertly exploited German resentment of the Treaty to gain support for himself and his Nazi party, blaming it for Germany's woes.

The Economic Impact: Reparations, Ruhr, and Hyperinflation

The Ruhr Occupation and its Consequences

The reparations demanded by the Treaty quickly became a source of severe economic strain. After paying the first installment of £50 million in 1921, Germany failed to make a payment in 1922. Ebert attempted to negotiate concessions, but France lost patience. In 1923, French and Belgian soldiers entered the Ruhr region, Germany's industrial heartland, to seize what was owed in raw materials and goods, an action legal under the Treaty.

The German government responded by ordering workers to go on strike, engaging in 'passive resistance' to prevent the French from taking anything. The French reacted harshly, killing over 100 workers and expelling over 100,000 protesters. The strike had disastrous consequences for Germany, halting production and trade, leaving the country with no goods and no money.

The Scourge of Hyperinflation

To address the lack of money, the German government simply printed extra currency. This desperate measure led to hyperinflation, a catastrophic economic disaster. The money became virtually worthless, causing prices to skyrocket. Prices could rise between joining and reaching the front of a queue in a shop, and wages were paid daily instead of weekly.

While some groups benefited, such as the government and big industrialists who could pay off huge debts in worthless marks, others were devastated. Pensioners were left penniless, and middle-class families saw their life savings, which could have bought a house in 1921, become insufficient for even a loaf of bread by 1923. This left a bitter memory, with the Treaty of Versailles being blamed. This bitterness intensified during the 1929 economic problems, making Hitler's claims to overturn the Treaty highly appealing.

Social Impact and German Morale

The consequences of the Treaty were not just political and economic but deeply social, affecting German morale and unity.

• Sense of Humiliation: The 'war guilt' clause and military restrictions deeply hurt German pride, especially among those who believed Germany had not truly lost the war.
• Territorial Displacement: The loss of territories and the creation of the Polish Corridor meant many ethnic Germans now lived in other countries or were forced to migrate, leading to social friction and feelings of displacement.
• Division and Bitterness: While some, like industrialists, profited from hyperinflation, the vast majority, particularly the middle class and pensioners, suffered immense financial ruin. This created deep societal divisions and intensified bitterness towards the Treaty and the government perceived as responsible.
• Fueling Extremism: The widespread resentment and suffering created a fertile ground for extremist ideologies. The uniform hatred of the Treaty provided a powerful rallying cry for groups like the Nazis, who promised to reverse its terms and restore German greatness.

Conclusion: The Lingering Shadow of Versailles

While the Treaty of Versailles undoubtedly caused genuine problems for Germany, it's crucial to understand that many Germans blamed it for other issues that had little direct connection to its terms. This widespread resentment was skillfully exploited by extreme groups, most notably Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party, to gain power and influence. The Treaty's legacy was not just a document of peace but a catalyst for instability, grievance, and ultimately, a path to further conflict.

Frequently Asked Questions about The Treaty of Versailles and Germany

How did the Treaty of Versailles impact Germany's economy?

The Treaty imposed heavy reparations (£6,600 million) and resulted in the loss of significant industrial territories, weakening Germany's economy. The failure to pay reparations led to the French and Belgian occupation of the Ruhr, which in turn triggered hyperinflation, making the German currency virtually worthless and devastating savings.

What was the German reaction to the military clauses of the Treaty of Versailles?

Germans viewed the severe restrictions on their armed forces (100,000-man army, no air force, tiny navy, demilitarized Rhineland) as deeply unfair and humiliating. The army had been a source of national pride, and they resented being disarmed while the Allies were not.

What was the Kapp Putsch and its connection to the Treaty of Versailles?

The Kapp Putsch was an attempted coup in March 1920 led by Wolfgang Kapp and supported by ex-soldiers (Freikorps) who were ordered to disband due to the Treaty's military terms. It aimed to overthrow Ebert's government and install a nationalist regime, highlighting the political instability and right-wing opposition fueled by resentment of the Treaty.

How did hyperinflation affect different groups in Germany?

Hyperinflation had a devastating impact on many, especially the middle class and pensioners, who saw their savings wiped out. However, some groups, like the government and big industrialists, benefited as they could pay off massive debts in worthless currency, creating significant social division and bitterness.

How did Adolf Hitler exploit German resentment of the Treaty of Versailles?

Adolf Hitler skillfully capitalized on the widespread hatred and bitterness towards the Treaty of Versailles. He blamed the Treaty for Germany's economic and political problems, using its perceived injustices as a powerful rallying cry to gain support for himself and the Nazi Party, promising to overturn its terms and restore German power.