Restoration and Eighteenth Century Literature

The period of Restoration and Eighteenth Century Literature, spanning from 1660 to 1780, is a remarkably rich and complex era in English literary history. It marks significant shifts in cultural, political, and intellectual landscapes, moving from the revival of monarchy to the dawn of the Enlightenment. Understanding this period is crucial for students grappling with its unique blend of continuity and dramatic change, as literary forms evolved and new voices emerged.This article provides a comprehensive overview, summarizing key developments, authors, and themes for students exploring this fascinating literary era.

Overview of Restoration and Eighteenth Century Literature (1660-1780) Summary

This era, often considered two distinct yet overlapping cultural periods, witnessed profound changes. The Restoration (1660) brought back the monarchy under Charles II, influencing a vibrant court culture with French opulence.

By the eighteenth century, this gave way to a broader diffusion of taste, emphasizing politeness and sociability, as noted by Anthony Ashley Cooper, the third Earl of Shaftesbury. This period saw the solidifying role of the modern author, the rise of a print culture over manuscript, and the development of a literary marketplace where bookselling and subscription replaced aristocratic patronage.

Key Characteristics of Restoration Literature and 18th Century Literature

• Continuity and Discontinuity: The period is named after two shorter ones, inviting a look at both shared traits and significant differences. Court culture and the pursuit of pleasure in the Restoration diverged from the politeness and sociability of the eighteenth century, influenced by new Hanoverian monarchs.
• Emergence of the Novel: The novel became a popular form, despite initially being considered less important than other genres. Early novelists were often women, like Aphra Behn, Delarivière Manley, and Eliza Haywood, challenging the later familiar narrative of the 'rise of the novel.'
• Shifts in Poetry: Poetry moved from the urban focus of the Restoration to a more rural sensibility by mid-century. It aimed for balance, often employing the heroic couplet, in contrast to the perceived excesses of Metaphysical poetry and the later Romantic focus on spontaneous emotion.
• Restoration of Drama: After being banned, theatre was restored, with women acting on stage for the first time. It became a platform for examining identity, urban life, and social conventions, though its cultural influence waned after 1700.
• Rise of Literary Criticism: Modern English literary criticism began to emerge, with figures like John Dryden, Joseph Addison, Richard Steele, and Samuel Johnson shaping debates, disseminating terms, and defining a literary canon.

Major Literary Genres and Forms

The Novel: An Emerging Form in the 18th Century

The novel's emergence is arguably the most significant literary development. It was an extended, fictional prose narrative, often claiming to be a "history" or true story, distinguishing itself from romance. Early English novels often engaged with colonialism and global themes, in contrast to the later domestic focus of nineteenth-century novels.

Examples include:

• Aphra Behn's Oroonoko, or the Royal Slave (1688): Often considered an early English novel, it connects fictional narrative to history and explores the complexities of slavery and European settlement. Behn's narrator claims eyewitness truth, mirroring early modern science's empirical approach.
• Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719): This influential work combines adventure and religious reflection. It's seen as a Lockean narrative of starting anew and is rich with allusions to economic theories and Dissenting Christian ideals. It dialogically responds to Behn, offering a Whig vision of the Glorious Revolution.
• Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels (1726): A satirical response to Robinson Crusoe, it features Gulliver's voyages to various populated islands. Swift uses irony to critique truth claims and the scientific pretensions of the Royal Society, with the narrator often unintentionally revealing self-involvement.
• Samuel Richardson's Pamela; Or, Virtue Rewarded (1740) and Clarissa, or the History of a Young Lady (1747–8): These epistolary novels, relying on letters to convey action, represented middle-class life and issues, contributing to the novel as a genre for this readership.
• Henry Fielding's The History of Tom Jones, A Foundling (1749): Fielding's works engaged in a dialogue with Richardson's, reflecting the inter-novelistic conversation characteristic of the period.

Restoration and 18th Century Poetry Analysis

Poetry during this time, often undervalued today, aimed for balance between the Metaphysical poets' density and the Romantics' emotional overflow. It was characterized by:

• Heroic Couplet: Dominated by rhyming pairs of iambic pentameter lines, exemplifying balance within each line.
• Topicality: Many poems, especially by Dryden, were deeply engaged with contemporary political events, making them historically significant but sometimes inaccessible today.
• Demographic Shift: From classically educated males distributing manuscripts, the period saw working-class poets (male and female) gaining publication.
• Shift to Rural Themes: Initially urban-focused (London), poetry gradually shifted to rural themes by mid-century.

Key Poets:

• John Milton (1608–74): Though often not considered a Restoration poet, his major works like Paradise Lost (1667) were published after 1660 and influenced subsequent writers like Dryden.
• John Dryden (1631–1700): A versatile writer and Poet Laureate, known for political satires like Absalom and Achitophel (1681) and MacFlecknoe (1682), which perfectly blended literary and political critique.
• Alexander Pope (1688–1744): Dominated the first third of the 18th century, known for his satirical Dunciad and philosophical "essays" like An Essay on Criticism (1711) and An Essay on Man (1733–4). Pope's 'Nature' combined classicism with Newtonian physics, advocating for rules and order, in contrast to the later Romantic view.
• Thomas Gray (1716–71): His Elegy Written in a Country Church Yard (1749–51) is a seminal work representing a shift towards the pastoral and a tentative embrace of native English history and sentiment, foreshadowing Romanticism.

Drama in the Restoration and Eighteenth Century

Charles II's return to England led to the reopening of theatres and, for the first time, allowed women to act. This era produced distinctive forms:

• Restoration Comedy: Satirical plays like George Villiers' The Rehearsal (1671), William Wycherley's The Country Wife (1675), and George Etherege's The Man of Mode (1676) explored social conventions, identity, and urban morality. They often depicted London as a stage itself.
• Criticism of the Stage: Jeremy Collier's Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage (1698) attacked theatre, leading to works like William Congreve's The Way of the World (1700) which offered intricate characterizations as a counter-argument.
• Later Developments: Though drama's cultural influence declined, the 18th century saw significant plays such as John Gay's ballad opera The Beggar's Opera (1728) and comedies like Oliver Goldsmith's She Stoops to Conquer (1773) and Richard Brinsley Sheridan's The Rivals (1775).

Letters and Literary Criticism in the 18th Century

Letters were a vital form of communication and a literary genre, often published in multi-volume series. Horace Walpole's letters, spanning 48 volumes, exemplify this. The rise of print culture and the sheer volume of publications spurred the development of formal literary criticism.

• Early Critics: John Dryden's An Essay of Dramatic Poesy (1668) set terms for English drama. Joseph Addison and Richard Steele's The Tatler (1709–11) and The Spectator (1711–12) aimed to cultivate a "Taste of polite Writing," reappraising works like Paradise Lost.
• Samuel Johnson (1709–84): A central figure, his Lives of the English Poets (1781) and essays in The Rambler and The Idler championed accumulated wisdom and the emotional power of reading, shaping the English literary canon.

Enlightenment and Scientific Context

The Enlightenment, often associated with French and German philosophers, also had strong British roots. Figures like Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton, and John Locke made major contributions to modern science, democracy, and toleration. The Royal Society (founded 1660) promoted empirical observation and plain prose, influencing literary style.

However, the period also saw critiques of Enlightenment reason from authors like Jonathan Swift and Laurence Sterne, suggesting a more complex, pluralistic view of the Enlightenment itself. David Hume involved passions in his definition of reason, while Samuel Johnson proposed that "truth requires deception" through fiction to be seen accurately, foreshadowing sentimental literature.

Colonialism and Global Context

This era profoundly engaged with Britain's burgeoning colonial empire. Early novels often depicted world explorers and colonial settings, reflecting contemporary debates and anxieties about global trade, expansion, and its consequences. Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations (1776) and Edmund Burke's critiques of the East India Company highlight these significant economic and ethical discussions of empire.

Restoration and Eighteenth Century Literature FAQ

What are the main literary characteristics of the Restoration period?

The Restoration period (1660-1688) is characterized by the return of drama to the English stage, the dominance of witty Restoration Comedy, and a focus on urban life, court culture, and themes of pleasure and social satire. Poetry often engaged with topical political subjects, using the heroic couplet, and there was a transition from manuscript to print culture.

How did the novel emerge in the 18th century?

The novel emerged as a long, fictional prose narrative, often presented as a "history" to claim truthfulness and distinguish itself from older romances. Early novelists, including many women, frequently explored themes of colonialism, individual resourcefulness, and middle-class life. The novel's flexible form allowed it to absorb and adapt elements from other genres, contributing to its growing popularity.

Who are some key authors and their works from this period?

Key authors include John Dryden (political satires like Absalom and Achitophel), Aphra Behn (Oroonoko), Daniel Defoe (Robinson Crusoe), Jonathan Swift (Gulliver's Travels), Alexander Pope (An Essay on Criticism, An Essay on Man), Samuel Richardson (Pamela, Clarissa), Henry Fielding (Tom Jones), Thomas Gray (Elegy Written in a Country Church Yard), and Samuel Johnson (criticism, dictionary).

What role did politics and science play in Restoration and 18th-century literature?

Politics profoundly influenced literature, especially poetry and the novel, which often served as allegories or direct commentaries on contemporary events like the Exclusion Crisis or the Glorious Revolution. The rise of science, particularly Newtonian philosophy and the empiricism promoted by the Royal Society, influenced literary criticism and the plain, objective prose style found in many early novels, though some authors also critiqued scientific rationalism.