European Gender Debates: Querelle des Femmes

In European history, few intellectual and social phenomena have sparked as much debate and cultural transformation as the Querelle des Femmes, or the "dispute about women." This centuries-long discussion deeply explored the perceptions and interpretations of sexes, their unique characteristics, and their relationships. Originating in the Middle Ages, particularly in Italy, France, and Spain, and spreading across Europe, the querelle became a cornerstone of early modern culture, influencing humanism, religious reform, and the Enlightenment.

This article provides a comprehensive analysis of the European gender debates, examining their origins, key arguments, and lasting impact on society, making it an essential overview for students.

Unpacking the Querelle des Femmes: A Historical Overview

The Querelle des Femmes began around the early Renaissance, questioning fundamental aspects of human nature. The term "querelle," meaning complaint or accusation in the 15th century, later evolved to signify battle or dispute. This debate was characterized by both misogynistic texts (attacks and diatribes against women) and philogynous ones (in defense or praise of women). While women authors were a minority, their writings formed a significant portion of female literary output at the time.

The discussion gained momentum with the rise of vernacular languages and the invention of printing, allowing for wide dissemination of ideas through books, pictures, and countless pamphlets. The debate transcended national borders, with many arguments discussed across Europe and even on both sides of the Atlantic.

The Foundational Question: Are Women Human?

At the heart of the Querelle des Femmes was the provocative question, "Are women human?" This issue gained significant traction after the anonymous publication of the Disputatio nova contra mulieres qua probatur eas homines non esse (A new disputation against women, in which it is proved that they are not human beings) in 1595. This work, which appeared in several languages and was widely reprinted, controversially answered the question in the negative, sparking outrage, amusement, and even agreement.

Prior to this, Christine de Pizan had already asserted that "women belong to the... human race as much as men" and are not "another species or dissimilar race." Even Erasmus of Rotterdam depicted women complaining that men "use us only for their pleasure and barely deem us worthy of the name human." Leading jurists like Jacques Cuias (1587) and Scipio Gentilis (1588) also denied women's humanity, highlighting the seriousness with which this "puzzle" was treated.

The debate over women's humanity also meant questioning if women were like men. As Madame d'Epinay noted in 1776, distinguishing between "man" (human creature), "a man" (masculine gender), and "a woman" (feminine gender) highlighted the confusion. Critics argued that if "man" was defined by soul, reason, or virtue, women should be included. Conversely, if defined by bodily strength or dominion, women were often excluded.

Key Arguments and Participants in the Gender Debates

Many voices shaped the Querelle des Femmes, from theologians and mystics to humanists and literary figures. Their arguments spanned a vast array of topics, including:

• Marriage and adultery
• Sex and chastity
• Beauty and shame
• Virtue and vice
• Work and children
• Money and violence (within and outside marriage)
• Intellect and domination
• Heaven and hell (worldly variants)
• God and the world

Early Challenges to Misogyny

The origins of the dispute can be traced to medieval traditions, where women were often depicted dichotomously—either as "the devil's gateway" (Tertullian) or, if virtuous, as the "bride of Christ." Scholastic thought, combining Aristotle and the Bible, often presented women as "deficient" or "misbegotten males" (mas occasionatus).

However, early challenges emerged:

• Hildegard of Bingen (12th century): Along with other female theologians and mystics like Elisabeth of Schonau and Beatrice of Nazareth, Hildegard used biblical and spiritual language to question the hierarchy of the sexes. She envisioned a "motherly love of God’s embrace."
• Christine de Pizan (c. 1400): A pivotal figure, Christine publicly debated prominent French scholars over the misogynistic portrayals in works like the Romance of the Rose. Her Livre de la Cité des Dames (Book of the City of Ladies, 1404-5) directly countered de Meun's admonishments, creating an allegorical haven for women and arguing for their equal capacity for reason and virtue. She famously stated, "If women had written the books we read, they would have handled things differently."
• Christine highlighted common grievances of women, including "brutal assaults, reprimands and slanders, and about infidelities, hurtful insults, lies and all sorts of other offenses."
• She also argued that if daughters received the same education as sons, they would achieve similar intellectual prowess.

The Renaissance and Humanist Perspectives

During the Renaissance, the debate intensified. Works like Galeazzo Flavio Capra's Della eccellenza e dignita delle donne (1525) and Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim's Of the Nobilitie and excellency of woman kynde (1509, published 1529) became fundamental resources. Humanists often grappled with the "Dignity of Man" concept (Pico della Mirandola's De dignitate hominis, 1486), which often implicitly excluded women.

• Misogamy and Misogyny: Hatred of marriage (misogamy) often became a vehicle for expressing hatred of women (misogyny). Authors like Bernardo Trotto (1578) and Giovanni della Casa (1537) harshly condemned marriage, citing women's supposed ugliness, illness, and character flaws.
• Philogamy and Philogyny: Civic humanists like Leonardo Bruni and Giannozzo Manetti, however, sought to upgrade marriage, thereby challenging misogynistic traditions. Bruni censured Boccaccio's criticism of Dante's marriage, arguing "Man is an animal civile," and the union between man and woman is primary for society. Manetti praised Socrates as a philosopher, citizen, and father, rejecting the idea of human misery rooted in being born of a woman.
• Notable Works: The period saw literary contributions from Giovanni Boccaccio (Decameron, Il Corbaccio), Geoffrey Chaucer (The Wife of Bath), and Baldesar Castiglione (Il libro del Cortegiano, 1528), which often presented dialogues between characters debating women's virtues and vices.

Women's Voices in the Querelle

As the debate progressed, more women explicitly joined the discussion:

• "Jane Anger" (1589): Under this pseudonym, an Englishwoman published Her Protection for Women, inveighing against "the falsehood of men" and asserting "some sovereignty in us women."
• Moderata Fonte, Lucrezia Marinella, Arcangela Tarabotti (16th-17th century Italy): These "three stars in the Venetian sky" wrote extensively in defense of women. Marinella's Le nobilta et eccellenze delle donne et I diffetti, e mancamenti de gli huomini (1600) directly responded to anti-women defamation. Tarabotti, a nun, wrote Che le donne siano della specie degli homini: Difesa delle donne (1651) and envisioned female liberty in works like Inferno monacale and Il Paradiso monacale.
• Mary Tattlewell and Joan Hit-him-home (1640): In The Women’s Sharp Revenge, these authors complained that men make women weaker by "Nurture," denying them education beyond pleasing men.
• Marie de Gournay (1622): Her Egalité des hommes et des femmes argued that women resemble men as much as a female cat resembles a tomcat, capable of being priestesses, and that women are unjustly denied creation in God's image because God is unfairly thought to have a beard.
• Sophia (1739): An anonymous Englishwoman's pamphlet, Woman Not Inferior to Man, asserted "perfect equality" between the sexes, attributing perceived differences solely to male "tyranny" and lack of education.

The Impact of Religious Reform on Gender Debates

The Protestant Reformation, with its challenges to clerical celibacy and emphasis on marriage, significantly impacted the Querelle des Femmes. Martin Luther vehemently denounced priestly celibacy as the work of the devil, advocating for marriage as a God-given lifestyle.

• Luther's Vom ehelichen Leben (On Married Life, 1522): Luther criticized existing misogamy, arguing that married life, despite its toils, was "God's work and goodwill." He even used the ironic paradox of a man washing nappies to emphasize that faith in such acts was more important than the deed itself.
• Shift in Marriage Ideals: Both Protestants and Catholics, particularly after the Council of Trent (1563), began to emphasize marriage, seeing it as having a threefold meaning: procreation, avoidance of extramarital sin, and mutual companionship. The concept of the "pastor's wife" emerged as a new model for a woman's "companion" or "helpmeet."
• Consequences for Women:
• Loss of convents as alternative lifestyles, as many were dissolved.
• The new-old marriage ideal became binding for most women, transforming a choice into a duty.
• Increased emphasis on wives' domestic and educational roles, particularly in the early religious education of children.

Despite the enhanced status of marriage, old legal rules persisted, such as coverture in English common law, where husband and wife were one legal person, with the man being the primary legal entity. The idea that women were inferior to men (inferior masculino sexu) continued to be debated, often framed by analogies like the sun and moon, where the woman (moon) reflected the man's (sun's) light.

Challenges to Patriarchy: The Power of Fathers, Men, and Women

The querelle also examined political power structures, which were often legitimized through paternal and patriarchal authority, linking the "father of the house," "father of the country," and "God the father."

• Mary Astell (1706): In a powerful challenge to this paradigm, Astell questioned, "If all men are born free, how is it that all women are born slaves?" She argued that men married for practical housekeepers and to maintain control, proposing that women should "never consent to be a wife" if marriage meant such servitude.
• "Fight for the Breeches": The image of trousers became a symbol of male superiority, with a rebellious woman occasionally dubbed mulier barbata (a bearded woman), challenging traditional gender roles and power dynamics. The debate questioned who truly held authority within the household and society.

The French Revolution: Resumption of the Gender Dispute

The French Revolution (1789-1799) profoundly reignited the Querelle des Femmes, bringing questions of gender, rights, and political participation to the forefront of an era defined by declarations of human rights and aspirations for liberty and equality.

Hopes for Equality and the Rights of Woman

Initially, the revolution offered hopes for greater equality. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) proclaimed universal rights, yet its universalism proved ambiguous for women.

• Olympe de Gouges (1791): In response to the Declaration, de Gouges penned the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen, a seminal text. She argued that "Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights." De Gouges asserted that women were full citizens, equal partners in the social contract, and demanded rights like:
• Equal access to public office and employment.
• Equal punishment for crimes and equal participation in tribunals.
• Equal taxation and property rights.
• Freedom of speech, including the right to name the father of her child without fear of reprisal.
• Sophie de Condorcet (1790): She published On the Admission of Women to the Rights of Citizenship, advocating for women's suffrage and equal political rights, stating that denying women these rights was a "tyranny." Her arguments highlighted that women possessed reason, the basis for all political rights.

Amazons, Counter-revolutionaries, and the Backlash

Despite these calls, the revolutionary government ultimately restricted women's political participation. Women were admired as symbols of the Republic (like Marianne) but excluded from active citizenship. This period also saw the rise of "Amazons" – women who participated in revolutionary action, often inspiring both fear and admiration.

• Women's Political Clubs: Women formed numerous political clubs, such as the Société des Républicaines Révolutionnaires (Society of Revolutionary Republican Women), which actively participated in public life. However, these clubs were often suppressed.
• Exclusion from Public Office: In 1793, the National Convention banned women's political clubs and explicitly excluded women from public life, citing their supposed "natural" destiny for domesticity. This was a significant setback for women's rights.
• Napoleon's Influence: Napoleon Bonaparte, who came to power after the revolution, solidified women's subordination through the Napoleonic Code. This code reinforced the patriarchal family structure, denying women many civil rights, effectively reversing some of the revolutionary aspirations for gender equality.

Frequently Asked Questions about the Querelle des Femmes

What is the Querelle des Femmes summary?

The Querelle des Femmes was a prolonged, centuries-long European debate, originating in the late Middle Ages and intensifying through the Renaissance and Enlightenment. It focused on the nature, status, and capabilities of women relative to men, encompassing discussions on their dignity, virtues, vices, roles in society, and religious standing. It questioned whether women were truly human, capable of reason, and worthy of political participation.

Who were the main participants in the Querelle des Femmes?

Key participants included early female humanists and mystics like Christine de Pizan and Hildegard of Bingen, as well as male scholars and writers such as Jean de Meun (criticized by Christine), Erasmus of Rotterdam, and humanists like Leonardo Bruni and Giannozzo Manetti. Later figures included women like "Jane Anger," Moderata Fonte, Arcangela Tarabotti, Marie de Gournay, and the anonymous "Sophia." During the French Revolution, Olympe de Gouges and Sophie de Condorcet were pivotal female voices.

What was the significance of the Bible in the European Gender Debates?

The Bible, particularly the Book of Genesis, played a crucial role as a battleground for arguments about gender. Debates centered on whether God created "man in his own image" and "as male and female" simultaneously (Genesis 1:27), or if woman was taken from man's rib (Genesis 2:20-3) as a symbol of inferiority or, conversely, superiority (being made from more noble material). The role of Eve in the Fall and original sin was also a central point of contention, influencing perceptions of women's inherent nature.

How did the Querelle des Femmes influence the French Revolution?

The Querelle des Femmes directly influenced the French Revolution by providing a pre-existing intellectual framework for debating women's rights and roles. Revolutionary ideals of liberty and equality, while initially framed for "man," were quickly seized upon by women who demanded their inclusion. Figures like Olympe de Gouges and Sophie de Condorcet used the language and legacy of the querelle to argue for women's political and civil rights, leading to explicit demands for female citizenship and equality, even if these demands were largely suppressed by the revolutionary government and later under Napoleon.