Essential English Grammar and Vocabulary

Welcome to your ultimate guide to Essential English Grammar and Vocabulary, specifically designed for students preparing for exams or simply looking to solidify their language skills. This comprehensive overview breaks down key concepts from financial terms and personality adjectives to culinary vocabulary and essential grammar rules, making it perfect for your "Essential English Grammar and Vocabulary maturita" review. Learn practical vocabulary, understand grammar nuances, and boost your confidence in English!

Mastering Essential English Vocabulary: Money, Food, People, and Travel

This section focuses on expanding your vocabulary across several crucial everyday topics. Understanding these words and phrases is fundamental for effective communication.

Money Matters: Verbs, Nouns, and Prepositions

Handling money is a big part of life, and English offers a rich vocabulary for it. Here are some essential terms:

Verbs related to money:

• be worth: to have a value of. (e.g., My house is worth about €200,000.)
• borrow: to take money from someone with the intention of paying it back. (e.g., I need to borrow £20 from my mum.)
• can't afford: not have enough money to buy or do something. (e.g., I can't afford to buy that car.)
• charge: to ask for a specific amount of money as payment. (e.g., The mechanic charges me £100.)
• cost: to have something as its price. (e.g., They cost $200.)
• earn: to get money for work you do. (e.g., I earn £1,000 a month.)
• inherit: to receive money or property from someone after they die. (e.g., I'm going to inherit £2,000.)
• invest: to put money into a business or scheme in the hope of making a profit. (e.g., I want to invest some money.)
• lend: to give money to someone for a short period, expecting it back. (e.g., He has promised to lend me €50.)
• owe: to need to pay or give something back to someone. (e.g., I owe Jim £100.)
• raise: to collect money for a specific purpose. (e.g., We want to raise money for the new hospital.)
• save: to keep money instead of spending it, often for a specific goal. (e.g., I save money every week.)
• waste: to spend money on unnecessary things. (e.g., I often waste money.)

Prepositions often used with money verbs:

• by cash/credit card: Would you like to pay by cash or credit card?
• for dinner/books/a bottle of wine: I paid for the dinner last night. I spent £50 for books yesterday. They charged us €60 for a bottle of wine.
• from the bank/a cash machine: I borrowed a lot of money from the bank. I took €200 from a cash machine.
• in property/debt: My uncle invested all his money in property. I never get in debt.
• into debt: I never get into debt.
• on books/stupid things: I spent £50 on books yesterday. I often spend money on stupid things.
• to friends/the bank: I don't like lending money to friends. Can I pay you back the money you lent me to the bank next week?

Key money nouns and their definitions:

• bill: A piece of paper showing how much money you owe for goods or services.
• budget: A plan of how to spend money available for a particular period.
• contactless payment: A fast payment method where you tap a card or phone without a PIN.
• insurance: Money paid to a company that pays if you are ill, or if you lose or break something.
• loan: Money lent by someone or a bank that must be paid back.
• mortgage: Money borrowed from a bank specifically to buy a house.
• salary: The money you receive regularly for the work you do.
• tax: Money paid to the government.

Phrasal verbs related to money:

• take out: withdraw money from an account or machine. (e.g., I took out €200 from a cash machine.)
• pay back: return money that you borrowed. (e.g., Can I pay you back the money you lent me next week?)
• live off: rely on money from someone else. (e.g., I have to live off my parents while I'm at university.)
• live on: have enough money from one source to survive. (e.g., It's difficult for me and my wife to live on only one salary.)

Food and Cooking: From Ingredients to Methods

This section covers essential vocabulary for discussing food and how it's prepared.

Fish and Seafood:

• crab
• lobster
• mussels
• prawns
• salmon
• squid
• tuna

Meat:

• beef
• chicken
• duck
• lamb
• pork

Fruit and Vegetables:

• aubergine (AmE eggplant)
• avocado
• beetroot
• cabbage
• cherries
• courgette (AmE zucchini)
• cucumber
• grapes
• green beans
• lemon
• mango
• melon
• peach
• pear
• raspberries
• red pepper

Cooking Methods:

• baked: Cooked in an oven without direct heat or oil (e.g., baked potatoes).
• boiled: Cooked in hot water (e.g., boiled eggs).
• fried: Cooked in hot oil or fat (e.g., fried chicken).
• grilled: Cooked under direct heat (e.g., grilled fish).
• roast: Cooked in an oven with fat or oil (e.g., roast lamb).
• steamed: Cooked over boiling water (e.g., steamed vegetables).

Phrasal verbs related to food and eating:

• eat out: to eat in a restaurant rather than at home. (e.g., I eat out a lot because I often don't have time to cook.)
• cut down on: to reduce the amount of something you eat or drink. (e.g., I'm trying to cut down on coffee at the moment.)
• cut out: to completely stop eating or drinking something. (e.g., The doctor told me that I should completely cut out all cheese.)

Personality Traits: Adjectives and Negative Prefixes

Describing people's characters is key to effective communication. Here's a list of common personality adjectives.

Positive Adjectives:

• affectionate: Showing love or liking for others (e.g., People show that they love or like other people very much).
• ambitious: Wanting to be successful in life.
• charming: Having an attractive personality that people like.
• competitive: Always wanting to win.
• honest: Always telling the truth; never stealing or cheating.
• imaginative: Having a good imagination.
• independent: Liking to do things on your own, without help.
• mature: Behaving like an adult.
• patient: Able to wait for a long time or accept difficulties without getting angry.
• reliable: Someone you can trust or depend on (SYN responsible).
• self-confident: Sure of yourself and your abilities.
• sensible: Having common sense and being practical.
• sensitive: Can be easily hurt or offended.
• sociable: Friendly and enjoying being with other people (SYN outgoing).

Negative Adjectives:

• anxious: Often worried or stressed.
• bossy: Liking to tell other people what to do.
• insecure: Not confident about themselves.
• moody: Having moods that change quickly and often.
• rebellious: Not liking obeying rules.
• selfish: Thinking about themselves and not about other people.
• spoilt: Children who are rude and behave badly because they are given everything they want.
• stubborn: Never changing your opinion or attitude about something.

Negative Prefixes (un-, in-, dis-):

These prefixes are used to form the opposite meaning of adjectives. Note that in- changes to im- before b, m, and p; ir- before r; and il- before l.

• un-/dis-: unambitious, unfriendly, unkind, dishonest, disorganized, unselfish, unimaginative.
• in-/im-/ir-: immature, impatient, irresponsible, insensitive.

False Friends (Words that look similar but have different meanings):

• sensible: practical (NOT easily upset).
• sensitive: easily hurt (NOT practical).
• sympathetic: kind to someone who is hurt or sad (NOT nice, friendly).

Transport and Travel: Vehicles, Roads, and Journeys

This section provides vocabulary for discussing different modes of transport and situations on the road.

Public Transport and Vehicles:

• coach (also a part of a train)
• ferry
• lorry (AmE truck)
• motorbike
• motorway (AmE freeway)
• scooter
• tram
• the Underground (AmE subway)
• van

On the Road: Compound Nouns:

• car crash
• cycle lane
• parking fine
• pedestrian crossing
• petrol station
• road works
• rush hour
• seat belt
• speed camera
• speed limit
• taxi rank
• traffic jam
• traffic lights
• zebra crossing

Phrasal verbs for travel:

• set off: to start a journey. (e.g., We set off at 7.00 in the morning.)
• pick up: to collect someone from a place. (e.g., Do you think you could pick me up at the station?)
• end up: to find yourself in a place or situation that you did not intend or expect. (e.g., Always check your satnav, or you may end up in the wrong place.)
• run out of: to use up all of something so that there is no more left. (e.g., We're going to run out of petrol soon.)
• look out / watch out: to be careful or vigilant. (e.g., Look out! You're going to crash!)

Essential English Grammar Breakdown

Understanding grammar is crucial for constructing correct and coherent sentences. This section covers key grammar topics like verb tenses, comparisons, and articles.

Present Simple and Continuous, Action and Non-Action Verbs

Present Simple: Used for things that are always true or happen regularly.

• Example: I live in London. She works in a restaurant.
• Adverbs of frequency (usually, never) go before the main verb and after 'be'. Expressions of frequency (every day, once a week) usually go at the end.

Present Continuous: Used for actions in progress at the time of speaking (now or around now), which are normally temporary.

• Example: The phone's ringing. House prices are going up.

Action vs. Non-Action Verbs:

• Action verbs (e.g., cook, make) can be used in both present simple and continuous. (e.g., I'm making lunch. I usually make lunch at the weekend.)
• Non-action verbs describe states or feelings (e.g., be, need, love, know, believe, agree, hate, hear, matter, mean, prefer, realize, recognize, remember, seem, suppose, want). They are not usually used in the present continuous. (e.g., I love pasta, NOT I'm loving pasta.)
• Some verbs like have and think can be both, depending on meaning. (e.g., I'm having lunch - action. I have a cat - non-action. What are you thinking about? - action. I think this music's great - non-action/opinion.)

Future Forms: Present Continuous, Be Going To, Will/Won't

English has several ways to talk about the future, each with specific uses.

Be Going To + Infinitive:

• Future plans and intentions: When a decision has already been made. (e.g., My sister's going to adopt a child. I'm not going to go home for the holidays.)
• Predictions based on evidence: When there's visible evidence. (e.g., Look at those black clouds. I think it's going to rain.)

Present Continuous:

• Future arrangements: For plans where arrangements have been made (e.g., booked a church, bought tickets). Often used with travel verbs (go, come, arrive, leave).
• Example: Lorna and Jamie are getting married in October. We're meeting at 10.00 tomorrow.

Will / Shall + Infinitive:

• Will / Won't:
• Instant decisions: Made at the moment of speaking. (e.g., I**'ll have** the steak.)
• Promises: (e.g., I won't tell anybody where you are.)
• Offers: (e.g., I**'ll carry** that bag for you.)
• Predictions: Without strong evidence, often opinions. (e.g., You**'ll love** New York!)
• Future facts: (e.g., Next year Christmas Day will be on a Thursday.)
• Shall (with I and we):
• Offers (as questions): (e.g., Shall I help you with your homework?)
• Suggestions (as questions): (e.g., Shall we eat out tonight?)

Present Perfect and Past Simple

These two tenses describe past actions but from different perspectives.

Present Perfect Simple (have/has + past participle):

• Past experiences: When the exact time isn't specified. Often used with ever and never. (e.g., I've inherited some money. Have you ever lost your credit card?)
• Recent past actions: When focusing on the present result. Often used with just. (e.g., I've cut my finger! Our train has just left!)
• With yet and already: Already in positive sentences (before main verb). Yet in negative sentences and questions (at the end). (e.g., I've already seen this film. My brother hasn't found a new job yet.)

Past Simple (worked, stopped, went, had, etc.):

• Finished past actions: When the time is mentioned or understood. (e.g., They got married last year. What time did you wake up this morning?)

Present Perfect + for / since:

• Used for actions or states that started in the past and continue to the present. (e.g., They've known each other for ten years. Julia's had that bag since she was at university.)
• Use How long...? + present perfect to ask about this duration.
• For + a period of time (e.g., for two weeks). Since + a point in time (e.g., since 2016).

Present Perfect Continuous (have/has been + verb + -ing)

• Used with for and since for action verbs that started in the past and are still ongoing or have just finished with present results. (e.g., How long have you been learning English? Nick has been working here since April.)
• With non-action verbs, use present perfect simple, not continuous. (e.g., They've known each other, NOT They've been knowing.)
• Can also describe continuous actions that have just finished with visible results. (e.g., Your eyes are red. Have you been crying?)
• Live and work can often use either present perfect simple or continuous with the same meaning.

Comparatives and Superlatives

These forms are used to compare people, places, things, or actions.

Comparing Two (Comparatives):

• Adjectives (+ than): Use comparative adjectives + than. (e.g., My car is a bit older than yours. London is more expensive than Edinburgh.)
• Regular: old → older, big → bigger, easy → easier, modern → more modern.
• Irregular: good → better, bad → worse, far → further/farther.
• One-syllable adjectives ending in -ed: bored → more bored, stressed → more stressed.
• (not) as + adjective + as: (e.g., The new sofa isn't as comfortable as the old one. I don't have as many books as I used to.)
• Comparing actions (Adverbs): Use comparative adverbs. (e.g., My father drives faster than me. He walks more slowly than I do.)
• Regular: fast → faster, slowly → more slowly.
• Irregular: well → better, badly → worse.
• (not) as + adverb + as: (e.g., Max doesn't speak English as well as his wife. I don't earn as much as my boss.)
• The same as: To say two things are identical. (e.g., Her dress is the same as mine.)

Comparing with all of a Group (Superlatives):

• Adjectives and Adverbs: Use superlative adjectives and adverbs to compare with a whole group. (e.g., Kevin is the tallest player. Oslo is the most expensive city. Lucy is the best student.)
• Formed with -est or the most / the least.
• Normally use the before superlatives, or possessive adjectives (my best friend).
• Often used with the present perfect + ever. (e.g., It's the best book I've ever read.)
• Use in (NOT of) before places after a superlative. (e.g., It's the longest bridge in the world, NOT of the world.)

Articles: A / An, The, No Article

Knowing when to use articles can be tricky, but it's vital for accuracy.

A / An

• With singular countable nouns:
• To say what something is or what somebody does. (e.g., It's a nice house. She's a lawyer.)
• The first time we mention a thing/person. (e.g., I saw an old man with a dog.)
• In exclamations with What...! (e.g., What an awful day!)
• In expressions of frequency. (e.g., I have classes three times a week.)

The

• When we talk about something already mentioned. (e.g., I saw an old man with a dog. The dog was barking.)
• When it's clear what we're referring to. (e.g., The bell rang. The children are at school.)
• When there's only one of something. (e.g., The moon goes round the Earth.)
• With places in a town (cinema, theatre). (e.g., I'm going to the cinema tonight.)
• With superlatives. (e.g., It's the best restaurant in town.)

No Article

• When speaking in general with plural and uncountable nouns. (e.g., Girls often learn to read earlier than boys. Love is more important than money.)
• Compare: I love the flowers in my garden (specific flowers).
• With some nouns (home, work, school, church) after at / to / from. (e.g., She's not at home today. I get back from work at 5.30.)
• Before meals, days, and months. (e.g., I never have breakfast. I'm going to the theatre on Tuesday.)
• Before next / last + day, week, etc. (e.g., See you next week.)

How Long Does It Take?

To talk about the duration of a journey or activity:

• Use: It takes (+ person) + time + to get (to / from).
• Example: It takes about an hour to get from London to Oxford by train. It took me more than an hour to get to work yesterday.

Frequently Asked Questions about Essential English Grammar and Vocabulary

What are some common challenges in English grammar for students?

Students often find distinguishing between present perfect and past simple difficult, as well as correctly using articles (a/an, the, no article). Understanding when to use the present simple versus present continuous, especially with non-action verbs, can also be a common hurdle.

How can I improve my English vocabulary effectively for exams?

Focus on categorizing vocabulary by topic (e.g., money, food, personality, transport) and learning words in context through sentences. Practice using new words in speaking and writing, and actively review definitions and usage examples. Flashcards and regular quizzes can be very effective.

What is the difference between "sensible," "sensitive," and "sympathetic"?

These are often called "false friends" for learners. Sensible means practical and logical (e.g., a sensible decision). Sensitive means easily hurt or offended, or aware of others' feelings (e.g., He's very sensitive to criticism). Sympathetic means understanding and caring about someone else's problems (e.g., She was very sympathetic when I told her about my loss).